Those who leave in the middle of the path

 Abstract

The main objective of this paper is to assess the water crisis in Nepal by conducting a series of case studies in rural watersheds in the mid-hills. This was achieved through the applied qualitative method, especially combinations of desk study/structured searches, consultation, and field observation. The ground survey revealed that most of the rural communities in the mid-hills have an unreliable water supply. According to the local stakeholders, 20–25% of water resources have dried up as compared to 20 years ago. Drying up of water resources disproportionately affects women and girls in rural areas as women are responsible for household chores, including fetching drinking water. The findings also revealed that low-income households bear a disproportionate coping burden as compared to elite groups, as they often engage in coping strategies such as collecting water from distant water sources, which is labor- and time-intensive, and also yields smaller quantities of water. Assuming that unreliable water supplies will continue to exist in rural areas of the mid-hills for the foreseeable future, there is a critical need to consider which, if any, coping strategies will be most effective in ensuring that poor households will have access to safe and sufficient water supply.

Introduction

Water is the single most important natural resource that is widely distributed in the natural environment (Plessis, 2017; Singh et al., 2019). Water is crucial for various aspects of human health, development and well-being (Guppy & Anderson, 2017; Plessis, 2017). Realizing the importance of water for human health and economic activity, the United Nations Sustainable Development Goal 6 targets access to water and sanitation for all people in the next 15 years (WHO, 2017). However, for developing countries it is more challenging to achieve this goal given their weak financial capabilities, poor infrastructures, and high population growth (Guppy & Anderson, 2017). Still, more than 40% of the total global population does not have access to sufficient clean water and the majority of these populations live in developing countries (UN, 2018; WHO, 2018). Widespread decreased availability of usable water poses a major threat to several sectors, including sustainable development (GLAAS, 2017). Furthermore, the condition of water scarcity is exacerbated by climate change that could cost some regions up to 6% of their gross domestic product (WBG, 2016).

In other words, although the total water globally has not decreased, the distribution and the demand for water are increasing to meet the demands of an increasing population and sectoral development. Freshwater resources are unevenly distributed across the Earth's surface, and thus, low-income countries like Nepal will be most affected by continuously decreasing availability of usable water. In terms of water resources, Nepal is one of the richest countries in the world, accounting for more than 2.27% of the world's water resources (HEMS, 2015). Despite being among the most water-rich countries, Nepal is ranked in the world's top five countries with a poorly developed drinking water system (McPhillips, 2017). Although water scarcity and lack of sanitation affect the entire population, impacts are differential and significant in inaccessible remote areas of the country. Thus, water scarcity is becoming an emerging national issue related to water pollution, food and energy insecurity, impeding the gross domestic product (Panthi et al., 2018).
Nepal is divided into five major physiographic regions, namely, Terai plain, Siwalik hills, mid-hills, lesser Himalaya, and higher and trans Himalaya (Figure 1). Terai plain consists of flat areas with elevation ranging from 60 to 200 masl. The Siwalik hills are commonly known as Churia hills and cover nearly 13% of the total area of the country. The elevation of the Churia ranges from 200 to 1,500 masl and is characterized by low terraces and alluvial flats with steep topography. The mid-hills are also known as the Mahabharata range. Elevation of the mid-hills ranges from 1,000 to 2,500 masl and extends throughout the entire length of the country. In many places the mid-hills ranges are intersected by major antecedent rivers, including the Koshi, the Gandaki, the Karnali, and the Mahakali. These rivers are the major source of water, originating from north of this range and drain to the south. The lesser Himalaya extends further north of the mid-hills and elevation ranges from 2,200 to 4,000 masl. The higher and trans Himalayas or the mountains range from 4,000 to 8,848 masl.

Fig. 1.

The five major physiographic regions of Nepal.

Acute water shortage is being felt in several parts of the country, especially in the mid-hills and high-hills. Assuming that water scarcity or unreliable water supplies will continue to exist in the mid-hills of Nepal for the foreseeable future, there is a dire need to consider which, if any, coping strategies will be most effective in ensuring that rural communities will have better access to clean and sufficient water for their domestic use. Demand for water is continuously increasing, but the availability of the water remains the same. The increasing water demand will put more pressure on the existing water sources, which could further deplete the supply in the regions of the country experiencing water shortage.

Freshwater resources are distributed unevenly in Nepal. In addition, the varied geographical setting has made the expansion or distribution of services and facilities unrealistic in isolated and rural areas. Most of the settlements are located far above the streams and rivers, which lie at the bottom of deep gullies and valleys far below, and the construction of water tanks could be most expensive or prohibitive in such settlements (Sharma et al., 2016). The main objective of this paper is to attain efficient and sustainable water resources management in the western mid-hills watersheds of Nepal. A road map of the research paper is summarized in Tablel